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Climate engineering

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"Geoengineering" redirects here. For other uses, see Geoengineering (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Weather modification.

Climate engineering (or geoengineering, climate intervention[1]) is the intentional large-scale alteration of the planetary environment to counteract anthropogenic climate change.[2][3] The term has been used as an umbrella term for carbon dioxide removal, weather as a weapon, reduction of pole ice and solar radiation modification when applied at a planetary scale.[4]: 168  However, these two processes have very different characteristics, and are now often discussed separately.[4]: 168 [5] Carbon dioxide removal techniques remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and are part of climate change mitigation. Solar radiation modification is the reflection of some sunlight (solar radiation) back to space to cool the earth.[6] Some publications include passive radiative cooling as a climate engineering technology. The media tends to also use climate engineering for other technologies such as glacier stabilization, ocean liming, and iron fertilization of oceans. The latter would modify carbon sequestration processes that take place in oceans.

Some types of climate engineering are highly controversial due to the large uncertainties around effectiveness, side effects and unforeseen consequences.[7] Interventions at large scale run a greater risk of unintended disruptions of natural systems, resulting in a dilemma that such disruptions might be more damaging than the climate damage that they offset.[8] However, the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of the trajectory of climate change without them.[9][8][10]

Terminology

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Climate engineering (or geoengineering) has been used as an umbrella term for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management, when applied at a planetary scale.[4]: 168  However, these two methods have very different geophysical characteristics, which is why the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change no longer uses this term.[4]: 168 [5] This decision was communicated in around 2018, see for example the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C.[11]: 550 

According to climate economist Gernot Wagner the term geoengineering is "largely an artefact and a result of the term's frequent use in popular discourse" and "so vague and all-encompassing as to have lost much meaning".[7]: 14 

Specific technologies that fall into the climate engineering umbrella term include:[12]: 30 

The following methods are not termed climate engineering in the latest IPCC assessment report in 2022[4]: 6–11  but are included under this umbrella term by other publications on this topic:[24][7]

Methods

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Carbon dioxide removal

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Carbon dioxide removal.[edit]
Planting trees is a nature-based way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere; however, the effect may only be temporary in some cases.[34][35]

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a process in which carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products.[36]: 2221  This process is also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal or negative emissions. CDR is more and more often integrated into climate policy, as an element of climate change mitigation strategies.[37][38] Achieving net zero emissions will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR ("CDR is what puts the net into net zero emissions" [39]). In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.[40]: 114 

CDR includes methods that are implemented on land or in aquatic systems. Land-based methods include afforestation, reforestation, agricultural practices that sequester carbon in soils (carbon farming), bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), and direct air capture combined with storage.[40][41] There are also CDR methods that use oceans and other water bodies. Those are called ocean fertilization, ocean alkalinity enhancement,[42] wetland restoration and blue carbon approaches.[40] A detailed analysis needs to be performed to assess how much negative emissions a particular process achieves. This analysis includes life cycle analysis and "monitoring, reporting, and verification" (MRV) of the entire process.[43] Carbon capture and storage (CCS) are not regarded as CDR because CCS does not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere.

Solar radiation modification

[edit]
refer to caption and image description
Proposed solar radiation modification using a tethered balloon to inject sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere
This section is an excerpt from Solar radiation modification.[edit]
Not to be confused with weather modification.

Solar radiation modification (SRM) (or solar geoengineering or solar radiation management), is a group of large-scale approaches to reduce global warming by increasing the amount of sunlight (solar radiation) that is reflected away from Earth and back to space. Among the potential methods, stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) is the most-studied,[44]: 350  followed by marine cloud brightening (MCB); others such as ground- and space-based methods show less potential or feasibility and receive less attention. SRM could be a supplement to climate change mitigation and adaptation measures,[45]: 1489  but would not be a substitute for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.[46] SRM is a form of climate engineering or geoengineering, and might be able to prevent some kinds of tipping.[47]

Scientific studies, based on evidence from climate models, have consistently shown that SRM could reduce global warming and many effects of climate change.[48][49][50] However, because warming from greenhouse gases and cooling from SRM would operate differently across latitudes and seasons, a world where global warming would be reduced by SRM would have a different climate from one where this warming did not occur in the first place. SRM would therefore pose environmental risks, as would a warmed world without SRM. Confidence in the current projections of how SRM would affect regional climate and ecosystems is low.[45]: 1491–1492 

Glacial geoengineering

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Glacial geoengineering.[edit]
Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to 1979-2000 average

Glacial geoengineering is a set of proposed geoengineering that focus on slowing the loss of glaciers, ice sheets, and sea ice in polar regions and, in some cases, alpine areas. Proposals are motivated by concerns that feedback loops—such as ice-albedo loss, accelerated glacier flow, and permafrost methane release—could amplify climate change and trigger climate tipping points.[51][52]

Proposed glacial geoengineering methods include regional or local solar radiation management, thinning cirrus clouds to allow more heat to escape, and deploying mechanical or engineering structures to stabilize ice. Specific strategies under investigation are stratospheric aerosol injection focused on polar regions,[53] marine cloud brightening,[54] surface albedo modification with reflective materials,[55] basal interventions such as draining subglacial water or promoting basal freezing,[52] and ice shelf protection measures including seabed curtains.[56]

Glacial geoengineering is in the early research stage and many proposals face major technical, environmental, and governance challenges.[54] Supporters argue that targeted interventions could help stabilize ice sheets, slow sea-level rise, and reduce the risk of passing irreversible thresholds in the climate system. At the same time, experts caution that the effectiveness of these methods remains highly uncertain and that interventions could produce unintended side effects.[52] Glacial geoengineering is generally considered a possible complement to, not a replacement for, efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[53][54]

Governance

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Most governance issues relating geoengineering are specific to the category or the specific method. Nevertheless, a couple of governance instruments have addressed geoengineering collectively.

The Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity have made several decisions regarding "climate related geoengineering." That of 2010 established "a comprehensive non-binding normative framework"[57]: 106  for "climate-related geoengineering activities that may affect biodiversity," requesting that such activities be justified by the need to gather specific scientific data, undergo prior environmental assessment, be subject to effective regulatory oversight.[58]: 96–97 [59]: 161–162  The Parties' 2016 decision called for "more transdisciplinary research and sharing of knowledge... in order to better understand the impacts of climate-related geoengineering."[59]: 161-162 [60]

Society and culture

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Public perception

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A large 2018 study used an online survey to investigate public perceptions of six climate engineering methods in the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.[12] Public awareness of climate engineering was low; less than a fifth of respondents reported prior knowledge. Perceptions of the six climate engineering methods proposed (three from the carbon dioxide removal group and three from the solar radiation modification group) were largely negative and frequently associated with attributes like 'risky', 'artificial' and 'unknown effects'. Carbon dioxide removal methods were preferred over solar radiation modification. Public perceptions were remarkably stable with only minor differences between the different countries in the surveys.[12][61]

Some environmental organizations (such as Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace) have been reluctant to endorse or oppose solar radiation modification, but are often more supportive of nature-based carbon dioxide removal projects, such as afforestation and peatland restoration.[62][63]

Research and projects

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See also: Solar radiation modification § Research funding

Several organizations have investigated climate engineering with a view to evaluating its potential, including the US Congress,[64] the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine,[65] the Royal Society,[66] the UK Parliament,[67] the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,[68] and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

In 2009, the Royal Society in the UK reviewed a wide range of proposed climate engineering methods and evaluated them in terms of effectiveness, affordability, timeliness, and safety (assigning qualitative estimates in each assessment). The key recommendations reports were that "Parties to the UNFCCC should make increased efforts towards mitigating and adapting to climate change, and in particular to agreeing to global emissions reductions", and that "[nothing] now known about geoengineering options gives any reason to diminish these efforts".[69] Nonetheless, the report also recommended that "research and development of climate engineering options should be undertaken to investigate whether low-risk methods can be made available if it becomes necessary to reduce the rate of warming this century".[69]

In 2009, a review examined the scientific plausibility of proposed methods rather than the practical considerations such as engineering feasibility or economic cost. The authors found that "[air] capture and storage shows the greatest potential, combined with afforestation, reforestation and bio-char production", and noted that "other suggestions that have received considerable media attention, in particular, "ocean pipes" appear to be ineffective".[70] They concluded that "[climate] geoengineering is best considered as a potential complement to the mitigation of CO2 emissions, rather than as an alternative to it".[70]

The IMechE report examined a small subset of proposed methods (air capture, urban albedo and algal-based CO2 capture techniques), and its main conclusions in 2011 were that climate engineering should be researched and trialed at the small scale alongside a wider decarbonization of the economy.[68]

In 2015, the US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded a 21-month project to study the potential impacts, benefits, and costs of climate engineering. The differences between these two classes of climate engineering "led the committee to evaluate the two types of approaches separately in companion reports, a distinction it hopes carries over to future scientific and policy discussions."[71][72][73] The resulting study titled Climate Intervention was released in February 2015 and consists of two volumes: Reflecting Sunlight to Cool Earth[74] and Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration.[75]

In June 2023 the US government released a report that recommended conducting research on stratospheric aerosol injection and marine cloud brightening.[76]

As of 2024 the Coastal Atmospheric Aerosol Research and Engagement (CAARE) project was launching sea salt into the marine sky in an effort to increase cloud "brightness" (reflective capacity). The sea salt is launched from the USS Hornet Sea, Air & Space Museum (based on the project's regulatory filings).[77]

See also

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References

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